Quantitative Human Physiology - Edition 2 - By Joseph J Feher, Ph.D., Cornell University Elsevier Health Inspection Copies

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Quantitative Human Physiology,

Edition 2 An Introduction

By Joseph J Feher, Ph.D., Cornell University

Publication Date: 16 Dec 2016

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Quantitative Human Physiology: An Introduction, winner of a 2018 Textbook Excellence Award (Texty), is the first text to meet the needs of the undergraduate bioengineering student who is being exposed to physiology for the first time, but requires a more analytical/quantitative approach. This book explores how component behavior produces system behavior in physiological systems. Through text explanation, figures, and equations, it provides the engineering student with a basic understanding of physiological principles with an emphasis on quantitative aspects.

Key Features

Winner of a 2018 Textbook Excellence Award (College) (Texty) from the Textbook and Academic Authors Association
Features a quantitative approach that includes physical and chemical principles
Provides a more integrated approach from first principles, integrating anatomy, molecular biology, biochemistry and physiology
Includes clinical applications relevant to the biomedical engineering student (TENS, cochlear implants, blood substitutes, etc.)
Integrates labs and problem sets to provide opportunities for practice and assessment throughout the course

NEW FOR THE SECOND EDITION

Expansion of many sections to include relevant information
Addition of many new figures and re-drawing of other figures to update understanding and clarify difficult areas
Substantial updating of the text to reflect newer research results
Addition of several new appendices including statistics, nomenclature of transport carriers, and structural biology of important items such as the neuromuscular junction and calcium release unit
Addition of new problems within the problem sets
Addition of commentary to power point presentations

About the author

By Joseph J Feher, Ph.D., Cornell University, Professor Emeritus of Physiology and Biophysics at Virginia Commonwealth University.

Preface
- This Text Is a Physiology Text First, and Quantitative Second
- The Text Uses Mathematics Extensively
- Not All Things Worth Knowing Are Worth Knowing Well
- Perfect Is the Enemy of Good: Equations Aren’t Perfect, but They’re Often Good Enough
- Examples and Problem Sets Allow Application of the Useful Equations
- Learning Objectives, Summaries, and Review Questions Guide Student Learning
- Clinical Applications Pique Interest
- How Instructors Can Use This Text
- Ancillary Materials for Instructors
- How students Can Use This Text
- Ancillary Materials for Students
- Student Feedback
Acknowledgments
Unit 1: Physical and Chemical Foundations of Physiology
- 1.1. The Core Principles of Physiology
  - Abstract
  - Human Physiology Is the Integrated Study of the Normal Function of the Human Body
  - The Body Consists of Causal Mechanisms That Obey the Laws of Physics and Chemistry
  - The Core Principles of Physiology
  - Cells Are the Organizational Unit of Life
  - The Concept of Homeostasis Is a Central Theme of Physiology
  - Evolution Is an Efficient Cause of the Human Body Working Over Longtime Scales
  - Living Beings Transform Energy and Matter
  - Function Follows Form
  - Positive Feedback Control Systems Have Different Signs for the Adjustment to Perturbations
  - We Are Not Alone: the Microbiota
  - Physiology Is a Quantitative Science
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 1.2. Physical Foundations of Physiology I: Pressure-Driven Flow
  - Abstract
  - Forces Produce Flows
  - Conservation of Matter or Energy Leads to the Continuity Equation
  - Steady-State Flows Require Linear Gradients
  - Heat, Charge, Solute, and Volume Can Be Stored: Analogues of Capacitance
  - Pressure Drives Fluid Flow
  - Poiseuille’s Law Governs Steady-State Laminar Flow in Narrow Tubes
  - The Law of LaPlace Relates Pressure to Tension in Hollow Organs
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 1.2.A1 Derivation of Poiseuille’s Law
  - Appendix 1.2.A2 Introductory Statistics and Linear Regresssion
- 1.3. Physical Foundations of Physiology II: Electrical Force, Potential, Capacitance, and Current
  - Abstract
  - Coulomb’s Law Describes Electrical Forces
  - The Electric Potential Is the Work per Unit Charge
  - The Idea of Potential Is Limited to Conservative Forces
  - The Work Done by a Conservative Force Is Path Independent
  - Potential Difference Depends Only on the Initial and Final States
  - The Electric Field Is the Negative Gradient of the Potential
  - Force and Energy Are Simple Consequences of Potential
  - Gauss’s Law Is a Consequence of Coulomb’s Law
  - The Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor Depends on Its Area and Plate Separation
  - Biological Membranes Are Electrical Capacitors
  - Electric Charges Move in Response to Electric Forces
  - Movement of Ions in Response to Electrical Forces Makes a Current and a Solute Flux
  - The Relationship Between J and C Defines an Average Velocity
  - Ohm’s Law Relates Current to Potential
  - Kirchhoff’s Current Law and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
  - The Time Constant Characterizes the Charging of a Capacitor in a Simple RC Circuit
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- Problem Set 1.1. Physical Foundations: Pressure and Electrical Forces and Flows
- 1.4. Chemical Foundations of Physiology I: Chemical Energy and Intermolecular Forces
  - Abstract
  - Atoms Contain Distributed Electrical Charges
  - Electron Orbitals Have Specific, Quantized Energies
  - Human Life Requires Relatively Few of the Chemical Elements
  - Atomic Orbitals Explain the Periodicity of Chemical Reactivities
  - Atoms Bind Together in Definite Proportions to Form Molecules
  - Compounds Have Characteristic Geometries and Surfaces
  - Single CC Bonds Can Freely Rotate
  - Double CC Bonds Prohibit Free Rotation
  - Chemical Bonds Have Bond Energies, Bond Lengths, and Bond Angles
  - Bond Energy Is Expressed as Enthalpy Changes
  - The Multiplicity of CX Bonds Produces Isomerism
  - Unequal Sharing Makes Polar Covalent Bonds
  - Ionic Bonds Result from Atoms with Highly Unequal Electronegativities
  - Water Provides an Example of a Polar Bond
  - Intermolecular Forces Arise from Electrostatic Interactions
  - Hydrogen Bonding Occurs Between Two Electronegative Centers
  - Dipole–Dipole Interactions Are Effective Only Over Short Distances
  - London Dispersion Forces Involve Induced Dipoles
  - Close Approach of Molecules Results in a Repulsive Force That Combines with the van der Waals Forces in the Lennard–Jones Potential
  - Atoms Within Molecules Wiggle and Jiggle, and Bonds Stretch and Bend
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 1.4.A1 Dipole Moment
- 1.5. Chemical Foundations of Physiology II: Concentration and Kinetics
  - Abstract
  - Avogadro’s Number Counts the Particles in a Mole
  - Concentration Is the Amount Per Unit Volume
  - Scientific Prefixes Indicate Order of Magnitude
  - Dilution of Solutions Is Calculated Using Conservation of Solute
  - Calculation of Fluid Volumes by the Fick Dilution Principle
  - Chemical Reactions Have Forward and Reverse Rate Constants
  - First-Order Rate Equations Show Exponential Decay
  - Rates of Chemical Reactions Depend on the Activation Energy
  - Enzymes Speed Up Reactions by Lowering E_a
  - The Michaelis–Menten Formulation of Enzyme Kinetics
  - Physiology Is All About Surfaces
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 1.5.A1 Transition State Theory Explains Reaction Rates in Terms of an Activation Energy
  - Appendix 1.5.A2 Unidirectional Fluxes Over a Series of Intermediates Depend on All of the Individual Unidirectional Fluxes
  - Appendix 1.5.A3 Simple Compartmental Analysis
- 1.6. Diffusion
  - Abstract
  - Fick’s First Law of Diffusion Was Proposed in Analogy to Fourier’s Law of Heat Transfer
  - Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion Follows from the Continuity Equation and Fick’s First Law
  - Fick’s Second Law Can Be Derived from the One-Dimensional Random Walk
  - The Time for One-Dimensional Diffusion Increases with the Square of Distance
  - Diffusion Coefficients in Cells Are Less than the Free Diffusion Coefficient in Water
  - External Forces Can Move Particles and Alter the Diffusive Flux
  - The Stokes–Einstein Equation Relates the Diffusion Coefficient to Molecular Size
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 1.6.A1 Derivation of Einstein’s Frictional Coefficient from Momentum Transfer in Solution
- 1.7. Electrochemical Potential and Free Energy
  - Abstract
  - Diffusive and Electrical Forces Can Be Unified in the Electrochemical Potential
  - The Overall Force That Drives Flux Is the Negative Gradient of the Electrochemical Potential
  - The Electrochemical Potential Is the Gibbs Free Energy Per Mole
  - The Sign of ΔG Determines the Direction of a Reaction
  - Processes with ΔG>0 Can Proceed Only by Linking Them with Another Process with ΔG<0
  - The Large Negative Free Energy of ATP Hydrolysis Powers Many Biological Processes
  - Measurement of the Equilibrium Concentrations of ADP, ATP, and Pi Allows Us to Calculate ΔG⁰
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- Problem Set 1.2. Kinetics and Diffusion
Unit 2: Membranes, Transport, and Metabolism
- 2.1. Cell Structure
  - Abstract
  - For Cells, Form Follows Function
  - Organelles Make Up the Cell Like the Organs Make Up the Body
  - The Cell Membrane Marks the Limits of the Cell
  - The Cytosol Provides a Medium for Dissolution and Transport of Materials
  - The Cytoskeleton Supports the Cell and Forms a Network for Vesicular Transport
  - Microtubules Are the Largest Cytoskeletal Filaments
  - Actin Filaments Arise from Nucleation Sites Usually in the Cell Cortex
  - Intermediate Filaments Are Diverse
  - Cytoskeletal Units Form Free-Floating Structures Based on Tensegrity
  - Myosin Interacts with Actin to Produce Force or Shortening
  - The Nucleus Is the Command Center of the Cell
  - Ribosomes Are the Site of Protein Synthesis
  - The ER Is the Site of Protein and Lipid Synthesis and Processing
  - The Golgi Apparatus Packages Secretory Materials
  - The Mitochondrion Is the Powerhouse of the Cell
  - Lysosomes and Peroxisomes Are Bags of Enzymes
  - Proteasomes Degrade Marked Proteins
  - Cells Attach to Each Other Through a Variety of Junctions
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 2.1.A1 Some Methods for Studying Cell Structure and Function
  - Microscopic Resolution Is the Ability to Distinguish Between Two Separated Objects
  - The Electron Microscope Has Advanced Our Understanding of Cell Structure
  - Subcellular Fractionation Allows Studies of Isolated Organelle But Requires Disruption of Cell Function and Structure
  - Differential Centrifugation Produces Enriched Fractions of Subcellular Organelles
  - Density Gradient Centrifugation Enhances Purity of the Fractions
  - Analysis of Centrifugation Separation
  - Centripetal Force in a Spinning Tube Is Provided by the Solvent
  - The Magnitude of the Centripetal Force Can Be Expressed as Relative Centrifugal Force
  - The Velocity of Sedimentation Is Measured in Svedbergs or S Units
  - Density Gradient Centrifugation
  - Other Optical Methods
- 2.2. DNA and Protein Synthesis
  - Abstract
  - DNA Makes Up the Genome
  - DNA Consists of Two Intertwined Sequences of Nucleotides
  - RNA Is Closely Related to DNA
  - The Genetic Code Is a System Property
  - Regulation of DNA Transcription Defines the Cell Type
  - The Histone Code Provides Another Level of Regulation of Gene Transcription
  - DNA Methylation Represses Transcription
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 2.3. Protein Structure
  - Abstract
  - Amino Acids Make Up Proteins
  - Hydrophobic Interactions Can Be Assessed from the Partition Coefficient
  - Peptide Bonds Link Amino Acids Together in Proteins
  - Protein Function Centers on Their Ability to Form Reactive Surfaces
  - There Are Four Levels of Description for Protein Structure
  - Posttranslational Modification Regulates and Refines Protein Structure and Function
  - Protein Activity Is Regulated by the Number of Molecules or by Reversible Activation/Inactivation
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 2.4. Biological Membranes
  - Abstract
  - Biological Membranes Surround Most Intracellular Organelles
  - Biological Membranes Consist of a Lipid Bilayer Core with Embedded Proteins and Carbohydrate Coats
  - Organic Solvents Can Extract Lipids from Membranes
  - Biological Membranes Contain Mostly Phospholipids
  - Phospholipids Contain Fatty Acyl Chains, Glycerol, Phosphate, and a Hydrophilic Group
  - Plasmanyl Phospholipids and Plasmenyl Phospholipids Use Fatty Alcohols Instead of Fatty Acids
  - Sphingolipids Use Sphingosine as a Backbone and Are Particularly Rich in Brain and Nerve Tissues
  - Other Lipid Components of Membranes Include Cardiolipin, Sphingolipids, and Cholesterol
  - Surface Tension of Water Results from Asymmetric Forces at the Interface
  - Water “Squeezes Out” Amphipathic Molecules
  - Amphipathic Molecules Spread Over a Water Surface, Reduce Surface Tension, and Produce an Apparent Surface Pressure
  - Phospholipids Form Bilayer Membranes Between Two Aqueous Compartments
  - Lipid Bilayers Can Also Form Liposomes
  - Although Lipids Form the Core, Membrane Proteins Carry Out Many of the Functions of Membranes
  - Membrane Proteins Bind to Membranes with Varying Affinity
  - Lipids Maintain Dynamic Motion Within the Bilayer
  - Lipid Rafts Are Special Areas of Lipid and Protein Composition
  - Caveolae and Clathrin-Coated Pits Are Stabilized by Integral Proteins
  - Secreted Proteins Have Special Mechanisms for Getting Inside the Endoplasmic Reticulum
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- Problem Set 2.1. Surface Tension, Membrane Surface Tension, Membrane Structure, Microscopic Resolution, and Cell Fractionation
- 2.5. Passive Transport and Facilitated Diffusion
  - Abstract
  - Membranes Possess a Variety of Transport Mechanisms
  - A Microporous Membrane Is One Model of a Passive Transport Mechanism
  - Dissolution in the Lipid Bilayer Is Another Model for Passive Transport
  - Facilitated Diffusion Uses a Membrane-Bound Carrier
  - Facilitated Diffusion Saturates with Increasing Solute Concentrations
  - Facilitated Diffusion Shows Specificity
  - Facilitated Diffusion Shows Competitive Inhibition
  - Passive Transport Occurs Spontaneously Without Input of Energy
  - Ions Can be Passively Transported Across Membranes by Ionophores or by Channels
  - Ionophores Carry Ions Across Membranes or Form Channels
  - Ion Channels
  - Water Moves Passively Through Aquaporins
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 2.6. Active Transport: Pumps and Exchangers
  - Abstract
  - The Electrochemical Potential Difference Measures the Energetics of Ion Permeation
  - Active Transport Mechanisms Link Metabolic Energy to Transport of Materials
  - Na,K-ATPase Is an Example of Primary Active Transport
  - Na,K-ATPase Forms a Phosphorylated Intermediate
  - The Na,K-ATPase Is Electrogenic
  - There Are Many Different Primary Active Transport Pumps
  - The Na–Ca Exchanger as an Example of Secondary Active Transport
  - Secondary Active Transport Mechanisms Are Symports or Antiports
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 2.6.A1 Derivation of the Ussing Flux Ratio Equation
  - Appendix 2.6.A2 Nomenclature of Transport Proteins
  - Carrier Classifications
  - Solute Carriers
  - ATP-Driven Ion Pumps
  - ABC Transporters
  - Aquaporins
- 2.7. Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
  - Abstract
  - Osmosis Is the Flow of Water Driven by Solute Concentration Differences
  - The van’t Hoff Equation Relates Osmotic Pressure to Concentration
  - Thermodynamic Derivation of van’t Hoff’s Law
  - Osmotic Pressure Is a Property of Solutions Related to Other Colligative Properties
  - The Osmotic Coefficient φ Corrects for the Assumption of Dilute Solution and for Nonideal Behavior
  - The Rational Osmotic Coefficient Corrects for the Assumption of Ideality
  - Equivalence of Osmotic and Hydrostatic Pressures
  - The Reflection Coefficient Corrects van’t Hoff’s Equation for Permeable Solutes
  - L_p for a Microporous Membrane Depends on the Microscopic Characteristics of the Membrane
  - Case 1: The Solute Is Very Small Compared to the Pore
  - Case 2: The Solute Is Larger than the Pore: The Mechanism of Osmosis for Microporous Membranes
  - Case 3: The Reflection Coefficient Results from Partially Restricted Entry of Solutes into the Pores
  - Solutions May Be Hypertonic or Hypotonic
  - Osmosis, Osmotic Pressure, and Tonicity Are Related But Distinct Concepts
  - Cells Behave Like Osmometers
  - Cells Actively Regulate Their Volume Through RVDs and RVIs
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 2.7.A1 Mechanism of Osmosis: Filtration Versus Diffusion Down a Concentration Gradient
- Problem Set 2.2. Membrane Transport
- 2.8. Cell Signaling
  - Abstract
  - Signaling Transduces One Event into Another
  - Cell-to-Cell Communication Can Also Use Direct Mechanical, Electrical, or Chemical Signals
  - Signals Elicit a Variety of Classes of Cellular Responses
  - Electrical Signals and Neurotransmitters Are Fastest; Endocrine Signals Are Slowest
  - Voltage-Gated Ion Channels Convey Electrical Signals
  - Voltage-Gated Ca²⁺ Channels Transduce an Electrical Signal to an Intracellular Ca²⁺ Signal
  - Ligand-Gated Ion Channels Open Upon Binding with Chemical Signals
  - Heterotrimeric G-Protein-Coupled Receptors (GPCRs) Are Versatile
  - There Are Four Classes of G-Proteins: Gα_s, Gα_i/Gα_o, Gα_q, and Gα₁₂/Gα₁₃
  - The Response of a Cell to a Chemical Signal Depends on the Receptor and Its Effectors
  - Chemical Signals Can Bind to and Directly Activate Membrane-Bound Enzymes
  - Many Signals Alter Gene Expression
  - Nuclear Receptors Alter Gene Transcription
  - Nuclear Receptors Recruit Histone Acetylase to Unwrap the DNA from the Histones
  - Nuclear Receptors Recruit Transcription Factors
  - Other Signaling Pathways Also Regulate Gene Expression
  - Summary of Signaling Mechanisms
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 2.9. ATP Production I: Glycolysis
  - Abstract
  - Take a Global View of Metabolism
  - Energy Production Occurs in Three Stages: Breakdown into Units, Formation of Acetyl CoA, and Complete Oxidation of Acetyl CoA
  - ATP Is the Energy Currency of the Cell
  - Fuel Reserves Are Stored in the Body Primarily in Fat Depots and Glycogen
  - Glucose Is a Readily Available Source of Energy
  - Glucose Release by the Liver Is Controlled by Hormones Through a Second Messenger System
  - The Liver Exports Glucose into the Blood Because It Can Dephosphorylate Glucose-6-P
  - A Specific Glucose Carrier Takes Glucose up into Cells
  - Glycolysis Is a Series of Biochemical Transformations Leading from Glucose to Pyruvate
  - Glycolysis Generates ATP Quickly in the Absence of Oxygen
  - Glycolysis Requires NAD⁺
  - Gluconeogenesis Requires Reversal of Glycolysis
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 2.10. ATP Production II: The TCA Cycle and Oxidative Phosphorylation
  - Abstract
  - Oxidation of Pyruvate Occurs in the Mitochondria via the TCA Cycle
  - Pyruvate Enters the Mitochondria and Is Converted to Acetyl CoA
  - Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Releases CO₂ and Makes NADH
  - The Affinity of a Chemical for Electrons Is Measured by Its Standard Reduction Potential
  - The Reduction Potential Depends on the Concentration of Oxidized and Reduced Forms, and the Temperature
  - The TCA Cycle Is a Catalytic Cycle
  - The ETC Links Chemical Energy to H⁺ Pumping Out of the Mitochondria
  - Oxygen Accepts Electrons at the End of the ETC
  - Proton Pumping and Electron Transport Are Tightly Coupled
  - The ATP Synthase Couples Inward H⁺ Flux to ATP Synthesis
  - The Proton Electrochemical Gradient Provides the Energy for ATP Synthesis
  - NADH Forms About 2.5 ATP Molecules; FADH₂ Forms About 1.5 ATP Molecules
  - ATP Can Be Produced From Cytosolic NADH
  - Most of the ATP Produced During Complete Glucose Oxidation Comes from Oxidative Phosphorylation
  - Mitochondria Have Specific Transport Mechanisms
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 2.11. ATP Production III: Fatty Acid Oxidation and Amino Acid Oxidation
  - Abstract
  - Fats and Proteins Contribute 50% of the Energy Content of Many Diets
  - Depot Fat Is Stored as Triglycerides and Broken Down to Glycerol and Fatty Acids for Energy
  - Glycerol Is Converted to an Intermediate of Glycolysis
  - Fatty Acids Are Metabolized in the Mitochondria and Peroxisomes
  - Beta Oxidation Cleaves Two Carbon Pieces off Fatty Acids
  - The Liver Packages Substrates for Energy Production by Other Tissues
  - Amino Acids Can Be Used to Generate ATP
  - Amino Acids Are Deaminated to Enable Oxidation
  - Urea Is Produced During Deamination and Is Eliminated as a Waste Product
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
Unit 3: Physiology of Excitable Cells
- 3.1. The Origin of the Resting Membrane Potential
  - Abstract
  - Introduction
  - The Equilibrium Potential Arises from the Balance Between Electrical Force and Diffusion
  - The Equilibrium Potential for K⁺ Is Negative
  - Integration of the Nernst–Planck Electrodiffusion Equation Gives the Goldman–Hodgkin–Katz Equation
  - Slope Conductance and Chord Conductance Relate Ion Flows to the Net Driving Force
  - The Chord Conductance Equation Relates Membrane Potential to All Ion Flows
  - The Current Convention Is that an Outward Current Is Positive
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 3.1.A1 Derivation of the GHK Equation
- 3.2. The Action Potential
  - Abstract
  - Cells Use Action Potentials as Fast Signals
  - The Motor Neuron Has Dendrites, a Cell Body, and an Axon
  - Passing a Current Across the Membrane Changes the Membrane Potential
  - An Outward Current Hyperpolarizes the Membrane Potential
  - The Result of Depolarizing Stimulus of Adequate Size Is a New Phenomenon—the Action Potential
  - The Action Potential Is All or None
  - The Latency Decreases with Increasing Stimulus Strength
  - Threshold Is the Membrane Potential at Which an Action Potential Is Elicited 50% of the Time
  - The Nerve Cannot Produce a Second Excitation During the Absolute Refractory Period
  - The Action Potential Reverses to Positive Values, Called the Overshoot
  - The Strength–Duration Relationship is Hyperbolic
  - Voltage-Dependent Changes in Ion Conductance Cause the Action Potential
  - The Action Potential Is Accompanied by Na⁺ Influx
  - The Chord Conductance Equation Predicts that Changes in Conductance Will Change the Membrane Potential
  - g_Na Increases Transiently During the Action Potential; g_K Increases Later and Stays Elevated Longer
  - Conductance and Equilibrium Potentials for Na⁺ and K⁺ Account for All of the Features of the Action Potential
  - g_Na Is a Function of a Na⁺-Selective Channel
  - The Inactivation Gates Must Be Reset Before Another Action Potential Can Be Fired
  - Conductance Depends on the Number and State of the Channels
  - Patch Clamp Experiments Measure Unitary Conductances
  - The Current–Voltage Relationship for the Whole Cell Determines the Threshold for Excitation
  - Threshold Depolarization Requires a Threshold Charge Movement, Which Explains the Strength–Duration Relationship
  - The Amount of Charge Necessary to Reach Threshold Explains the Strength–Duration Relationship
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 3.2.A1 The Hodgkin–Huxley Model of the Action Potential
  - The HH Model Divides the Total Current into Separate Na⁺, K⁺, and Leak Currents
  - The HH Model of the K⁺ Conductance Incorporates Four Independent “Particles”
  - The HH Model of Na⁺ Conductances Uses Activating and Inactivating Particles
  - Calculation of g_Na(t) and g_K(t) for a Voltage Clamp Experiment
  - Results of the Calculations
- 3.3. Propagation of the Action Potential
  - Abstract
  - The Action Potential Moves Along the Axon
  - The Velocity of Nerve Conduction Varies Directly with the Axon Diameter
  - The Action Potential Is Propagated by Current Moving Axially Down the Axon
  - The Time Course and Distance of Electrotonic Spread Depend on the Cable Properties of the Nerve
  - Capacitance Depends on the Area, Thickness, and Dielectric Constant
  - Charge Buildup or Depletion from a Capacitor Constitutes a Capacitative Current
  - The Transmembrane Resistance Depends on the Area of the Membrane
  - The Axoplasmic Resistance Depends on the Distance, Area, and Specific Resistance
  - The Extracellular Resistance Also Depends on the Distance, Area, and Specific Resistance
  - Cable Properties Define a Space Constant and a Time Constant
  - The Cable Properties Explain the Velocity of Action Potential Conduction
  - Saltatory Conduction Refers to the “Jumping” of the Current from Node to Node
  - The Action Potential Is Spread out Over More than One Node
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 3.3.A1 Capacitance of a Coaxial Capacitor
  - The Capacitance of a Coaxial Cable
- Problem Set 3.1. Membrane Potential, Action Potential, and Nerve Conduction
- 3.4. Skeletal Muscle Mechanics
  - Abstract
  - Muscles Either Shorten or Produce Force
  - Muscles Perform Diverse Functions
  - Muscles Are Classified According to Fine Structure, Neural Control, and Anatomical Arrangement
  - Isometric Force Is Measured While Keeping Muscle Length Constant
  - Muscle Force Depends on the Number of Motor Units That Are Activated
  - The Size Principle States That Motor Units Are Recruited in the Order of Their Size
  - Muscle Force Can Be Graded by the Frequency of Motor Neuron Firing
  - Muscle Force Depends on the Length of the Muscle
  - Recruitment Provides the Greatest Gradation of Muscle Force
  - Muscle Fibers Differ in Contractile, Metabolic and Proteomic Characteristics
  - Motor Units Contain a Single Type of Muscle Fiber
  - The Innervation Ratio of Motor Units Produces a Proportional Control of Muscle Force
  - Muscle Force Varies Inversely with Muscle Velocity
  - Muscle Power Varies with the Load and Muscle Type
  - Eccentric Contractions Lengthen the Muscle and Produce More Force
  - Concentric, Isometric, and Eccentric Contractions Serve Different Functions
  - Muscle Architecture Influences Force and Velocity of the Whole Muscle
  - Muscles Decrease Force Upon Repeated Stimulation; This Is Fatigue
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 3.5. Contractile Mechanisms in Skeletal Muscle
  - Abstract
  - Introduction
  - Muscle Fibers Have a Highly Organized Structure
  - The Sliding Filament Hypothesis Explains the Length–Tension Curve
  - Force Is Produced by an Interaction Between Thick Filament Proteins and Thin Filament Proteins
  - The Thin Filament Consists Primarily of Actin
  - α-Actinin at the Z-disk Joins Actin Filaments of Adjacent Sarcomeres
  - Myomesin Joins Thick Filaments at the M-Line or M-Band
  - Overall Structure of the Sarcomere Is Complicated
  - Cross-Bridges from the Thick Filament Split ATP and Generate Force
  - Myosin Heads Are Independent But May Cooperate Through Strain on the Cross-Bridge
  - Cross-Bridge Cycling Rate Explains the Fiber-Type Dependence of the Force–Velocity Curve
  - Force Is Transmitted Outside the Cell Through the Cytoskeleton and Special Transmembrane Proteins
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
- 3.6. The Neuromuscular Junction and Excitation–Contraction Coupling
  - Abstract
  - Motor Neurons Are the Sole Physiological Activators of Skeletal Muscles
  - The Motor Neuron Receives Thousands of Inputs from Other Cells
  - Postsynaptic Potentials Can Be Excitatory or Inhibitory
  - Postsynaptic Potentials Are Graded, Spread Electrotonically, and Decay with Time
  - Action Potentials Originate at the Initial Segment or Axon Hillock
  - Motor Neurons Integrate Multiple Synaptic Inputs to Initiate Action Potentials
  - The Action Potential Travels Down the Axon Toward the Neuromuscular Junction
  - The Neuromuscular Junction Consists of Multiple Enlargements Connected by Axon Segments
  - Neurotransmission at the Neuromuscular Junction Is Unidirectional
  - Motor Neurons Release Acetylcholine to Excite Muscles
  - Ca²⁺ Efflux Mechanisms in the Presynaptic Cell Shut Off the Ca²⁺ Signal
  - Acetylcholine Is Degraded and Then Recycled
  - The Action Potential on the Muscle Membrane Propagates Both Ways on the Muscle
  - The Muscle Fiber Converts the Action Potential into an Intracellular Ca²⁺ Signal
  - The Ca²⁺ during E–C Coupling Originates from the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
  - Ca²⁺ Release from the SR and Reuptake by the SR Requires Several Proteins
  - Reuptake of Ca²⁺ by the SR Ends Contraction and Initiates Relaxation
  - Cross-Bridge Cycling Is Controlled by Myoplasmic [Ca²⁺]
  - Sequential SR Release and Summation of Myoplasmic [Ca²⁺] Explains Summation and Tetany
  - The Elastic Properties of the Muscle Are Responsible for the Waveform of the Twitch
  - Repetitive Stimulation Causes Repetitive Ca²⁺ Release from the SR and Wave Summation
  - Summary
  - Review Questions
  - Appendix 3.6.A1 Molecular Machinery of the Neuromuscular Junction
  - Appendix 3.6.A2 Molecular Machinery of the Calcium Release Unit
- 3.7. Muscle Energetics, Fatigue, and Training
  - Abstract
  - Muscular Activity Relies on the Free Energy of ATP Hydrolysis
  - Muscular Activity Consumes ATP at High Rates
  - The Aggregate Rate and Amount of ATP Consumption Varies with the Intensity and Duration of Exercise
  - In Repetitive Exercise, Intensity Increases Frequency and Reduces Rest Time
  - Metabolic Pathways Regenerate ATP on Different Timescales and with Different Capacities
  - The Metabolic Pathways Used by Muscle Varies with Intensity and Duration of Exercise
  - At High Intensity of Exercise, Glucose and Glycogen Are the Preferred Fuel for Muscle
  - Lactic Acid Produced by Anaerobic Metabolism Allows High Glycolytic Flux
  - Muscle Fibers Differ in Their Metabolic Properties
  - Blood Lactate Levels Rise Progressively with Increases in Exercise Intensity
  - Mitochondria Import Lactic Acid, Then Metabolize it; This Forms a Carrier System for NADH Oxidation
  - Lactate Shuttles to the Mitochondria, Oxidative Fibers, or Liver
  - The “Anaerobic Threshold” Results from a Mismatch of Lactic Acid Production and Oxidation
  - Exercise Increases Glucose Transporters in the Muscle Sarcolemma
  - Fatigue Is a Transient Loss of Work Capacity Resulting from Preceding Work
  - Initial Training Gains Are Neural
  - Muscle Strength Depends on Muscle Size
  - Endurance Training Uses Repetitive

ISBN: 9780128008836

Page Count: 1008

Retail Price :

9780123749796; 9780121602406; 9780123749765; 9780123849823

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Undergraduate bioengineering students

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