List of Contributors ............................................................................................................................ xix
CHAPTER 1 Upper Limb Exoskeleton Systems—Overview .....................................1
Yang Shen, Peter Walker Ferguson and Jacob Rosen
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Overview of Upper Limb Exoskeleton Systems ....................................................... 2
1.2.1 Mechanism ....................................................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Actuation .......................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Assistive Upper Limb Exoskeletons.......................................................................... 8
1.3.1 AIST................................................................................................................. 9
1.3.2 SUEFUL-7 ....................................................................................................... 9
1.3.3 MULOS............................................................................................................ 9
1.3.4 HAL.................................................................................................................. 9
1.3.5 ABLE ............................................................................................................... 9
1.3.6 MyoPro............................................................................................................. 9
1.4 Rehabilitation Upper Limb Exoskeletons................................................................ 10
1.4.1 MIT-MANUS............................................................................................... 10
1.4.2 NeReBot ....................................................................................................... 10
1.4.3 ARM Guide.................................................................................................. 10
1.4.4 ReoGo........................................................................................................... 11
1.4.5 GENTLE/s.................................................................................................... 11
1.4.6 ACT3D .......................................................................................................... 11
1.4.7 iPAM............................................................................................................ 11
1.4.8 Bi-Manu-Track............................................................................................. 11
1.4.9 MIME........................................................................................................... 11
1.4.10 KINARM...................................................................................................... 11
1.4.11 L-Exos .......................................................................................................... 12
1.4.12 BONES......................................................................................................... 12
1.4.13 ARMin III .................................................................................................... 12
1.4.14 MGA............................................................................................................. 12
1.4.15 IntelliArm ..................................................................................................... 12
1.4.16 MEDARM.................................................................................................... 13
1.4.17 Exorn ............................................................................................................ 13
1.4.18 SRE............................................................................................................... 13
1.4.19 RUPERT IV ................................................................................................. 13
1.4.20 RehaBot........................................................................................................ 13
1.4.21 ETS-MARSE................................................................................................ 13
1.4.22 Recupera-Reha ............................................................................................. 13
1.4.23 EXO-UL Series ............................................................................................ 14
1.5 Augmentation Upper Limb Exoskeletons................................................................ 14
1.5.1 SARCOS Guardian XO ................................................................................. 15
1.5.2 SARCOS Guardian GT.................................................................................. 15
1.5.3 ShoulderX from SuitX ................................................................................... 15
1.5.4 EksoVest from Ekso Bionics ......................................................................... 15
1.6 Others ....................................................................................................................... 15
1.6.1 EXARM ......................................................................................................... 15
1.6.2 X-Arm-2 ......................................................................................................... 16
1.6.3 SARCOS Master Arm.................................................................................... 16
1.6.4 SAM ............................................................................................................... 16
1.6.5 CAPIO............................................................................................................ 16
1.6.6 SARCOS Dextrous Arm................................................................................ 16
1.6.7 EMY............................................................................................................... 16
1.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 16
References................................................................................................................. 17
CHAPTER 2 Development and Control of an Upper Extremity Exoskeleton
Robot for Rehabilitation...................................................................... 23
Brahim Brahmi, Maarouf Saad, M.H. Rahman, Cristobal Ochoa-Luna
and Islam Rasedul
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 23
2.2 Characterization of System Rehabilitation .............................................................. 25
2.2.1 Exoskeleton Robot Development .................................................................. 25
2.2.2 Dynamics of Ecole de Technologie Suprieure
Robotic-exoskeleton for Superior Extremity Robot...................................... 25
2.2.3 Problem Statement ......................................................................................... 27
2.3 Control Design ......................................................................................................... 28
2.3.1 Uncertain Estimation ..................................................................................... 28
2.3.2 Estimation of the State of the System ........................................................... 28
2.3.3 Design of Integral Second-Order Terminal Sliding Mode Controller.......... 30
2.3.4 Active Assistive Motion ................................................................................ 34
2.4 Experiment and Comparative Study........................................................................ 35
2.4.1 Experiment Setup........................................................................................... 35
2.4.2 Results of Passive Assistive Motion.............................................................. 37
2.4.3 Comparative Study......................................................................................... 37
2.4.4 Results of Active Assistive Motion............................................................... 39
2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 42
2.6 Ethics Statement....................................................................................................... 42
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... 42
References................................................................................................................. 42
CHAPTER 3 Design of the Arm Exoskeleton ABLE Achieving Torque
Control Using Ball Screw and Cable Mechanism.............................. 45
Philippe Garrec
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 45
3.2 The SCS Mechanism: A New Answer to the Challenge of Linear Torque
Amplification............................................................................................................ 45
3.2.1 Mechanical Reversibility/Irreversibility—Backdrivability—Torque
Transfer Linearity .......................................................................................... 46
3.2.2 Mechanical Torque Amplification on Servomanipulators ............................ 48
3.3 The First ABLE 4D.................................................................................................. 52
3.4 The Completion of ABLE 7D ................................................................................. 54
3.4.1 Forearm
3.4.2 A New Shoulder With Nonorthogonal Joints and Simple Bearing .............. 60
3.5 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 62
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................... 64
References................................................................................................................. 65
CHAPTER 4 Rigid Versus Soft Exoskeletons: Interaction Strategies
for Upper Limb Assistive Technology ................................................ 67
Domenico Chiaradia, Michele Xiloyannis, Massimiliano Solazzi,
Lorenzo Masia and Antonio Frisoli
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 67
4.2 Exoskeletons Descriptions ....................................................................................... 69
4.2.1 A Rigid Exoskeleton: The Rehab-Exos......................................................... 70
4.2.2 Elbow Exosuit (Soft Exosuit) ........................................................................ 71
4.3 Exoskeleton Models ................................................................................................. 73
4.3.1 Rehab-Exos (Rigid Exoskeleton)................................................................... 73
4.3.2 Exosuit (Soft Exosuit).................................................................................... 75
4.4 Controls Design........................................................................................................ 76
4.4.1 Direct Torque Control (Rigid Exoskeleton).................................................. 76
4.4.2 Admittance Control (Soft Exosuit)................................................................ 77
4.5 Experimental Setup .................................................................................................. 79
4.5.1 Evaluation of the Direct Torque Control (Rigid Exoskeleton)..................... 79
4.5.2 Evaluation of the Admittance Control (Soft Exosuit) .................................. 80
4.6 Results ...................................................................................................................... 81
4.6.1 Evaluation of the Direct Torque Control (Rigid Exoskeleton)..................... 81
4.6.2 Evaluation of the Admittance Control (Soft Exosuit) .................................. 83
4.6.3 Assistive Performance: Rehab-Exos Versus Exosuit.................................... 84
4.7 Discussion................................................................................................................. 86
4.8 Conclusion................................................................................................................ 88
References................................................................................................................. 88
CHAPTER 5 EXO-UL Upper Limb Robotic Exoskeleton System Series:
From 1 DOF Single-Arm to (711) DOFs Dual-Arm............................ 91
Yang Shen and Jacob Rosen
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 91
5.2 Exoskeleton Systems................................................................................................ 92
5.2.1 Prototype 1 (EXO-UL1) ................................................................................ 92
5.2.2 Prototype 2 (EXO-UL3) ................................................................................ 94
5.2.3 Prototype 3 (EXO-UL7) ................................................................................ 95
5.2.4 Prototype 4 (EXO-UL8) ................................................................................ 96
5.3 Related Research ...................................................................................................... 99
5.3.1 Control Algorithms ........................................................................................ 99
5.3.2 Redundancy Resolution ................................................................................. 99
5.3.3 Synergy Analysis ........................................................................................... 99
5.3.4 Dual-Arm Training ...................................................................................... 100
5.3.5 Virtual Reality.............................................................................................. 100
5.4 Summary................................................................................................................. 100
References............................................................................................................... 100
CHAPTER 6 PRISM: Development of a 2-DOF Dual-Four-Bar Exoskeleton
Shoulder Mechanism to Support Elevation, Depression,
Protraction, and Retraction .............................................................. 105
Joel C. Perry, Chris K. Bitikofer, Parker W. Hill, Shawn T. Trimble
and Eric T. Wolbrecht
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 105
6.1.1 Rehabilitation Robotics: Exoskeleton Versus End-Effector ....................... 106
6.1.2 Exoskeleton Shoulder Background.............................................................. 106
6.1.3 Overview ...................................................................................................... 111
6.2 Methods: PRISM Development ............................................................................. 111
6.2.1 BLUE SABINO Concept............................................................................. 112
6.2.2 EXO-UL8 Design Approach........................................................................ 113
6.2.3 Shoulder Range of Motion Requirements Estimation ................................ 114
6.2.4 Conceptual Design of a Remote Biomimetic Shoulder Module ................ 116
6.2.5 Gravity Compensation Methods .................................................................. 120
6.3 Results .................................................................................................................... 120
6.3.1 Shoulder Range of Motion Requirements Estimation ................................ 122
6.3.2 Dual Four-Bar Mechanism Proof-of-Concept Mockup .............................. 122
6.3.3 Exoskeleton Clavicle Design and Assembly............................................... 124
6.3.4 Spring-Based Gravity Compensation .......................................................... 124
6.3.5 PRISM Final Design .................................................................................... 126
6.4 Conclusion and Discussion .................................................................................... 128
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. 129
References............................................................................................................... 129
CHAPTER 7 Design and Modeling of Shoulder Exoskeleton Using Two
Revolute Joints .................................................................................. 133
Carlos Parga and Wen Yu
7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 133
7.2 Shoulder Exoskeleton With 2 Degrees of Freedom.............................................. 133
7.3 Shoulder Exoskeleton Design ................................................................................ 135
7.4 Modeling the Shoulder Exoskeleton...................................................................... 139
7.5 Control for the Exoskeleton................................................................................... 141
7.5.1 Lyapunov Stability....................................................................................... 141
7.5.2 Linear Control .............................................................................................. 142
7.5.3 Sliding Mode Controller .............................................................................. 142
7.5.4 Neural Control.............................................................................................. 143
7.6 Electronic and Control System.............................................................................. 143
7.7 Experimental Results.............................................................................................. 145
7.8 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 148
References............................................................................................................... 148
CHAPTER 8 Hand Exoskeleton Systems—Overview............................................ 149
Peter Walker Ferguson, Yang Shen and Jacob Rosen
8.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 149
8.2 Overview of Hand Exoskeleton Systems .............................................................. 150
8.2.1 Mechanism ................................................................................................... 150
8.2.2 Actuation ...................................................................................................... 154
8.2.3 Transmission ................................................................................................ 155
8.2.4 Sensing Method............................................................................................ 156
8.2.5 Control.......................................................................................................... 157
8.3 Assistive Hand Exoskeletons ................................................................................. 158
8.3.1 Brown et al................................................................................................... 158
8.3.2 Lucas et al .................................................................................................... 159
8.3.3 In et al .......................................................................................................... 159
8.3.4 Kadowaki et al ............................................................................................. 159
8.3.5 OFX.............................................................................................................. 159
8.3.6 ExoGlove...................................................................................................... 159
8.3.7 Polygerinos et al........................................................................................... 160
8.3.8 HX................................................................................................................ 160
8.3.9 Secciani et al ................................................................................................ 160
8.4 Rehabilitation Hand Exoskeletons ......................................................................... 160
8.4.1 HWARD..................................................................................................... 161
8.4.2 Gentle/G..................................................................................................... 161
8.4.3 Wege et al .................................................................................................. 162
8.4.4 Kawasaki et al ............................................................................................ 162
8.4.5 HANDEXOS.............................................................................................. 162
8.4.6 Tong et al ................................................................................................... 162
8.4.7 HEXORR ................................................................................................... 163
8.4.8 ATX............................................................................................................ 163
8.4.9 iHandRehab................................................................................................ 163
8.4.10 Rahman et al .............................................................................................. 163
8.4.11 Arata et al................................................................................................... 163
8.4.12 IOTA .......................................................................................................... 163
8.4.13 HEXOSYS-I............................................................................................... 164
8.4.14 Zhang et al ................................................................................................. 164
8.4.15 BRAVO...................................................................................................... 164
8.4.16 Sinfonia ...................................................................................................... 164
8.4.17 Agarwal et al .............................................................................................. 164
8.4.18 Abdallah et al ............................................................................................. 165
8.4.19 Ferguson et al............................................................................................. 165
8.4.20 DexoHand................................................................................................... 165
8.5 Augmentation Hand Exoskeletons......................................................................... 165
8.5.1 Shields et al .................................................................................................. 166
8.5.2 Skil Mate ...................................................................................................... 166
8.5.3 Hasegawa et al ............................................................................................. 166
8.5.4 Tadano et al.................................................................................................. 167
8.5.5 Matheson et al .............................................................................................. 167
8.5.6 RoboGlove ................................................................................................... 167
8.6 Others ..................................................................................................................... 167
8.6.1 SKK Hand Master........................................................................................ 168
8.6.2 Rutgers Master II-ND .................................................................................. 168
8.6.3 Stergiopoulos et al ....................................................................................... 168
8.6.4 Fontana et al................................................................................................. 168
8.6.5 Jo et al .......................................................................................................... 168
8.7 Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 169
References............................................................................................................... 170
CHAPTER 9 A Portable Tailor-Made Exoskeleton for Hand Disabilities ............ 177
Benedetto Allotta, Matteo Bianchi, Enrico Meli, Alessandro Ridolfi
and Nicola Secciani
9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 177
9.2 Kinematic Analysis and Synthesis......................................................................... 177
9.3 Kinematic Chain Assessment: First Device .......................................................... 179
9.3.1 Mechanical Design....................................................................................... 181
9.3.2 Electronics and Control Architecture .......................................................... 182
9.3.3 Testing and Discussion ................................................................................ 182
9.4 Ergonomics Improvements: Second Device.......................................................... 183
9.4.1 Mechanical Design....................................................................................... 183
9.4.2 Electronics and Control Architecture .......................................................... 184
9.4.3 Testing and Discussion ................................................................................ 185
9.5 User-Based Actuation Strategy: Final Device....................................................... 185
9.5.1 Mechanical Design....................................................................................... 186
9.5.2 Electronic Components and Control Architecture ...................................... 186
9.5.3 Testing and Discussion ................................................................................ 190
9.6 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 190
References............................................................................................................... 191
Further Reading ...................................................................................................... 191
CHAPTER 10 Optimal Kinematic Design of the Link Lengths
of a Hand Exoskeleton...................................................................... 193
Peter Walker Ferguson, Brando Dimapasoc and Jacob Rosen
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 193
10.2 Method.................................................................................................................... 194
10.2.1 Modeling the Human Digits ...................................................................... 194
10.2.2 Exoskeleton Topology ............................................................................... 195
10.2.3 Modeling the 3R Planar Mechanisms ....................................................... 197
10.2.4 The Optimization Algorithm ..................................................................... 197
10.3 Results .................................................................................................................... 200
10.3.1 Simulation Results ..................................................................................... 200
10.3.2 Physical Prototype Evaluation ................................................................... 201
10.4 Discussion............................................................................................................... 201
10.4.1 Link Length Evaluation ............................................................................. 201
10.4.2 Prototype Workspace Evaluation .............................................................. 203
10.5 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 204
Acknowledgement .................................................................................................. 204
References............................................................................................................... 204
CHAPTER 11 Lower Limb Exoskeleton Systems—Overview ................................. 207
Hao Lee, Peter Walker Ferguson and Jacob Rosen
11.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 207
11.2 Assistive Exoskeletons ........................................................................................... 208
11.3 Rehabilitation Exoskeletons................................................................................... 215
11.3.1 Rehabilitation With Weight Support ......................................................... 215
11.3.2 Rehabilitation Without Weight Support.................................................... 217
11.4 Augmentation Exoskeletons................................................................................... 217
11.4.1 Assistance Directly Applied to Tasks ....................................................... 218
11.4.2 Assistance Applied on Users ..................................................................... 219
11.5 Actuation of Lower Limb Exoskeletons................................................................ 221
11.6 Future for Lower Limb Exoskeletons.................................................................... 222
References............................................................................................................... 223
CHAPTER 12 WalkON Suit: A Medalist in the Powered Exoskeleton
Race of Cybathlon 2016................................................................... 231
Jungsu Choi and Kyoungchul Kong
12.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 231
12.2 Design of WalkON Suit ......................................................................................... 232
12.2.1 Overall Configuration ................................................................................ 232
12.2.2 Actuation Systems...................................................................................... 232
12.2.3 Robotic Legs .............................................................................................. 234
12.2.4 Control Unit and Backpack ....................................................................... 235
12.2.5 Crutches...................................................................................................... 235
12.2.6 User Display............................................................................................... 235
12.3 Sensor System ........................................................................................................ 235
12.4 Human Factors ....................................................................................................... 236
12.4.1 Pilot ............................................................................................................ 236
12.4.2 Knee
12.5 Control System....................................................................................................... 238
12.5.1 Processes of Overall Control System ........................................................ 238
12.5.2 Main Functions of the Control System ..................................................... 240
12.6 Evaluation............................................................................................................... 244
12.6.1 Training ...................................................................................................... 244
12.6.2 Cybathlon 2016 .......................................................................................... 246
12.6.3 Analysis of Cybathlon 2016 ...................................................................... 246
12.7 After the Cybathlon................................................................................................ 247
Acknowledgment .................................................................................................... 248
References............................................................................................................... 248
CHAPTER 13 Design of Lower-Limb Exoskeletons and Emulator Systems........... 251
Kirby Ann Witte and Steven H. Collins
13.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 251
13.2 Exoskeleton Emulator Testbeds............................................................................. 251
13.2.1 Emulator Pros and Cons ............................................................................ 252
13.2.2 Off-Board Components—Power, Actuation, and Control Hardware ....... 254
13.3 Untethered Systems................................................................................................ 254
13.4 Mechanical Design of Onboard Components........................................................ 255
13.4.1 Loading Analysis—Free Body Diagrams.................................................. 255
13.4.2 Safety Stops and Physical Interfaces......................................................... 256
13.4.3 Frame and Joint Design ............................................................................. 260
13.4.4 Sensing ....................................................................................................... 264
13.4.5 Series Elasticity for Improved Torque Tracking....................................... 266
13.4.6 Materials and Manufacturing..................................................................... 267
13.5 Control.................................................................................................................... 269
13.5.1 Case Study—Control of Any CMU Emulator .......................................... 271
13.6 Making Strides in the Future ................................................................................. 271
References............................................................................................................... 272
CHAPTER 14 Physical Assistant Robot Safety....................................................... 275
Yoji Yamada and Yasuhiro Akiyama
14.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 275
14.2 Contact Safety of the Physical Assistant Robot .................................................... 275
14.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 275
14.2.2 Verification and Validation Test Procedure.............................................. 276
14.2.3 Verification Experiments for Obtaining an Inherently
Safe Region Against Blister Generation ................................................... 276
14.2.4 Validation Test Method for Wound Risk.................................................. 280
14.2.5 Application of a Surrogate Skin for Safety Validation............................. 285
14.2.6 Summary .................................................................................................... 286
14.3 Fall Risk During Gait Using a Wearable Robot ................................................... 286
14.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 286
14.3.2 Mismatch Between the Motion of the Wearable Robot
and the Wearer ........................................................................................... 288
14.3.3 Contact With an Environmental Object .................................................... 292
14.3.4 Curving Motion Under Limited Degree of Freedom................................ 295
14.3.5 Summary .................................................................................................... 297
14.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 297
References............................................................................................................... 298
CHAPTER 15 Current Evidence for Use of Robotic Exoskeletons in
Rehabilitation .................................................................................... 301
Arun Jayaraman, Borislav Marinov, Yashna Singh, Sheila Burt
and William Zev Rymer
15.1 Brief History of Exoskeletons................................................................................ 301
15.1.1 Early Designs ............................................................................................. 301
15.1.2 First Prototypes 1961<73.......................................................................... 301
15.1.3 The Exoskeleton Awakening: 2001<08.................................................... 302
15.1.4 The New Exoskeleton Renaissance: 2015<18 and Onwards................... 302
15.1.5 Exoskeletons in Development ................................................................... 302
15.1.6 Current Food and Drug Administration
15.2 Overview of Clinical Evidence.............................................................................. 305
15.2.1 Early-Stage Feasibility and Case Studies.................................................. 307
15.2.2 Randomized Controlled Trials................................................................... 308
15.3 A Look to the Future.............................................................................................. 309
References............................................................................................................... 309
CHAPTER 16 Structural Exoskeletons and Soft Fabric Exosuits
for Assistive Walking........................................................................ 311
Lawrence J. Jasinski
16.1 Burden of Spinal Cord Injury ................................................................................ 312
16.1.1 Demographics............................................................................................. 312
16.1.2 Adverse Health Outcomes ......................................................................... 312
16.2 Current Treatment Options .................................................................................... 314
16.2.1 Wheelchairs................................................................................................ 314
16.2.2 Leg Braces.................................................................................................. 315
16.2.3 Functional Electric Stimulation ................................................................. 315
16.2.4 Standing Frames and Standing Mobility Devices..................................... 316
16.3 Rationale for Exoskeletons .................................................................................... 316
16.4 ReWalk Product Summary..................................................................................... 317
16.4.1 ReWalk Components and Specifications .................................................. 317
16.4.2 Communicator............................................................................................ 317
16.4.3 Exoskeleton ................................................................................................ 318
16.4.4 Waist Pack.................................................................................................. 318
16.4.5 System Configuration ................................................................................ 318
16.4.6 Video Links................................................................................................ 318
16.4.7 Levels of Patient Training ......................................................................... 320
16.5 Safety and Efficacy Profile .................................................................................... 320
16.5.1 Patient Selection......................................................................................... 320
16.5.2 Safe Ambulatory Function and Patient Tolerance .................................... 321
16.5.3 Exoskeleton-Assisted Walking Simulates Normal
Physiological Effects ................................................................................. 322
16.5.4 Impact on Quality of Life.......................................................................... 325
16.6 Economic Impact.................................................................................................... 328
16.6.1 Challenges of Exoskeletons ....................................................................... 329
16.6.2 Exosuits ...................................................................................................... 329
16.6.3 Design of the ReStore Exosuit .................................................................. 330
16.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 331
References............................................................................................................... 331
CHAPTER 17 Hybrid Exoskeletons to Restore Gait in Individuals
With Paralysis From Spinal Cord Injury........................................... 335
Sarah R. Chang, Rudi Kobetic and Ronald J. Triolo
17.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 335
17.2 Technologies to Restore Walking.......................................................................... 335
17.2.1 Functional Neuromuscular Stimulation Systems ...................................... 335
17.2.2 Lower Limb Orthoses ................................................................................ 336
17.2.3 Powered Exoskeletons ............................................................................... 336
17.3 Current State-of-the-Art Systems for Restoration of Walking ............................. 337
17.3.1 Hybrid Neuroprosthesis ............................................................................. 337
17.3.2 Powered Exoskeletons and Functional Neuromuscular
Stimulation ................................................................................................. 339
17.3.3 Powered Exoskeletons and Implanted Functional Neuromuscular
Stimulation ................................................................................................. 340
17.3.4 The Need for Speed ................................................................................... 340
17.3.5 Ease of Use and Cosmesis ......................................................................... 341
17.3.6 Other Applications of Hybrid Systems ..................................................... 342
17.4 Conclusions ............................................................................................................ 342
References............................................................................................................... 343
CHAPTER 18 Hybrid Wearable Robotic Exoskeletons
for Human Walking ........................................................................... 347
Juan C. Moreno, Samer Mohammed, Nitin Sharma
and Antonio J. del-Ama
18.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 347
18.2 Advances in Hybrid Wearable Technologies ........................................................ 348
18.2.1 Modeling Approaches for Control............................................................. 349
18.3 Potential Future Technologies ............................................................................... 350
18.4 Clinical and Usability Factors................................................................................ 351
18.5 Case Study.............................................................................................................. 352
18.5.1 Results ........................................................................................................ 356
18.5.2 Discussion .................................................................................................. 358
18.5.3 Case Study Conclusion .............................................................................. 360
18.6 Challenges and Future Directions.......................................................................... 360
18.7 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 361
References............................................................................................................... 361
Further Reading ...................................................................................................... 364
CHAPTER 19 Upper Limb Active Prosthetic Systems—Overview......................... 365
Claudio Castellini
19.1 Introduction/Motivation ......................................................................................... 365
19.2 The Past .................................................................................................................. 367
19.3 The Present ............................................................................................................. 368
19.3.1 Design of Prosthetic Devices..................................................................... 368
19.3.2 Control........................................................................................................ 370
19.3.3 Amputations and Patients .......................................................................... 372
19.4 The Future: A Short Note ...................................................................................... 373
References............................................................................................................... 374
CHAPTER 20 Design Principles of a Light, Wearable Upper Limb Interface
for Prosthetics and Teleoperation.................................................... 377
Claudio Castellini
20.1 Wearable Interfaces for Wearable Robots............................................................. 377
20.2 Current Problems.................................................................................................... 378
20.2.1 Sensors and Bodily Signals ....................................................................... 379
20.2.2 The Physical Interface: Properly Housing the Sensors............................. 381
20.2.3 Signal Processing, Machine Learning, Adaptation ................................... 382
20.3 Design Guidelines for a Wearable Upper Limb Interface .................................... 383
20.3.1 Current Pitfalls ........................................................................................... 383
20.3.2 Implementation and Testing ...................................................................... 384
20.3.3 Final Remark: Not Just Prosthetics ........................................................... 385
Acknowledgment .................................................................................................... 387
References............................................................................................................... 387
CHAPTER 21 The Modular Prosthetic Limb ........................................................... 393
Matthew S. Johannes, Eric L. Faulring, Kapil D. Katyal,
Matthew P. Para, John B. Helder, Alexander Makhlin, Tom Moyer,
Daniel Wahl, James Solberg, Steve Clark, Robert S. Armiger,
Travis Lontz, Kathryn Geberth, Courtney W. Moran, Brock A. Wester,
Thomas Van Doren and Julio J. Santos-Munne
21.1 Introduction and Overview .................................................................................... 393
21.1.1 Background ................................................................................................ 393
21.1.2 Early Development: Prototypes and Phases.............................................. 394
21.1.3 MPL Architecture Overview, Capabilities, and Features ......................... 399
21.2 MPL Detailed Description ..................................................................................... 400
21.2.1 Upper Arm and Wrist Design.................................................................... 401
21.2.2 Hand Design............................................................................................... 413
21.2.3 Fingers ........................................................................................................ 413
21.2.4 Auxiliary Subsystems ................................................................................ 430
21.3 High-Level Controls and System Interfacing........................................................ 433
21.3.1 High-Level Controls .................................................................................. 433
21.3.2 VulcanX and the OCU............................................................................... 434
21.3.3 The VIE and the vMPL ............................................................................. 435
21.3.4 Web Interface............................................................................................. 435
21.4 Select MPL Applications and Uses ....................................................................... 438
21.4.1 Cortical Control and Feedback.................................................................. 438
21.4.2 Amputees.................................................................................................... 439
21.4.3 Robo Sally.................................................................................................. 440
21.5 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 441
Acknowledgments .................................................................................................. 441
References............................................................................................................... 441
CHAPTER 22 Sensing and Control for Prosthetic Hands in Clinical
and Research Applications............................................................... 445
Luke E. Osborn, Mark M. Iskarous and Nitish V. Thakor
22.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 445
22.2 Prosthesis Control................................................................................................... 446
22.2.1 Movement Signals...................................................................................... 447
22.2.2 Movement Decoding.................................................................................. 448
22.2.3 Targeted Muscle Reinnervation and Osseointegration ............................. 449
22.2.4 State of the Art........................................................................................... 450
22.3 Sensors for Prosthetic Hands ................................................................................. 450
22.3.1 Sensing in Biology..................................................................................... 450
22.3.2 Sensing Devices ......................................................................................... 451
22.3.3 State of the Art........................................................................................... 453
22.4 Sensory Feedback................................................................................................... 454
22.4.1 Tactile......................................................................................................... 454
22.4.2 Pain............................................................................................................. 457
22.4.3 Proprioception ............................................................................................ 457
22.4.4 State of the Art........................................................................................... 458
22.5 Future Directions.................................................................................................... 459
22.5.1 Prosthetic Sockets ...................................................................................... 460
22.5.2 Prosthesis Control ...................................................................................... 460
22.5.3 Augmented Reality Training ..................................................................... 460
22.5.4 Sensors and e-Skins ................................................................................... 460
22.5.5 Sensory Feedback ...................................................................................... 461
22.6 Conclusion.............................................................................................................. 461
Acknowledgment .................................................................................................... 461
Abbreviations.......................................................................................................... 461
References............................................................................................................... 462
CHAPTER 23 Lower Limb Active Prosthetic Systems—Overview......................... 469
Alexandra S. Voloshina and Steven H. Collins
23.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 469
23.2 Background............................................................................................................. 470
23.3 Systems................................................................................................................... 472
23.3.1 Mechanical Configuration and Actuation Approaches ............................. 472
23.3.2 Control Approaches ................................................................................... 476
23.4 Conclusions and Future Directions........................................................................ 479
References............................................................................................................... 480
CHAPTER 24 Controlling a Powered Transfemoral Prosthetic Leg
Using a Unified Phase Variable ....................................................... 487
Dario J. Villarreal and Robert D. Gregg
24.1 Background............................................................................................................. 488
24.2 Phase Variable Algorithm...................................................................................... 490
24.2.1 Real-Time Phase Variable Algorithm for Control Applications .............. 490
24.3 Controlling a Transfemoral Powered Prosthetic Leg Using a Phase Variable..... 493
24.3.1 Control Law ............................................................................................... 493
24.3.2 Hardware Setup.......................................................................................... 494
24.3.3 Experimental Protocol ............................................................................... 495
24.3.4 Results From Amputee Experiments......................................................... 496
24.3.5 Discussion of Amputee Experiments ........................................................ 500
References............................................................................................................... 505
Index .................................................................................................................................................. 507
