SECTION I GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 1
1. Cell: A Structural and Functional Unit 3
Introduction 4
The Principal Organ Systems 4
Homeostasis 5
Structure and Function of a Cell 6
2. Transport across Cell
Membrane 22
Passive Transport 23
Osmoles, Osmolarity and Osmolality 27
Tonicity 28
Active Transport (Uphill Transport) 28
Vesicular Transport 31
Epithelial Transport 33
3. Body Water and Body Fluids 36
Total Body Water 36
Body Fluid Compartments 37
Composition of Extra- and Intracellular
Fluids 38
Measuring the Fluid Volumes in the
Different Body Fluid Compartments 39
Measures of Concentration 39
Acid, Base and pH 40
Acidosis and Alkalosis 41
Buffers 41
4. Membrane Potentials 43
Ion Channels 43
Types of Gates 44
Diffusion Potential 44
Equilibrium Potential 44
Resting Membrane Potential 45
Genesis of Resting Membrane Potential
(Transmembrane Potential) 46
Measurement of Resting Membrane
Potential 46
SECTION II PHYSIOLOGY
OF NERVE AND
MUSCLE 49
5. Nerve Physiology 51
Structure of a Neuron 52
Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axon 53
Types of Neuron 54
Ionic Basis of Action Potential 58
Properties of Action Potential 59
Conductivity (Propagation of Action
Potential) 60
6. Muscle Physiology 64
Types of Muscle 65
General Function of Muscles 65
Skeletal Muscles 65
Myofi laments 67
Other Structural Proteins 68
Molecular Basis of Muscular
Contraction of Skeletal Muscle 69
Excitation Contraction Coupling 69
Sequence of Events in Muscular
Contraction 71
Energy for Muscular Contraction 71
Isometric, Isotonic and Eccentric
Contraction 72
Classifi cation of Skeletal Muscle
Fibre Type 73
Electrical Activity of Skeletal Muscle 74
Effect of Repeated Stimulus to Muscle 74
Heat Production in Muscles 75
The Oxygen Debt 75
Motor Unit 75
Muscle Fatigue 76
Rigor Mortis 76
Cardiac Muscle 76
Properties of Cardiac Muscle 77
Mechanical Properties 77
Smooth Muscle 78
7. Neuromuscular Junction 83
Structure of Neuromuscular Junction 83
Mechanism of Transmission of Nerve
Impulse Across Neuromuscular
Junction 84
Degradation of Acetylcholine 86
SECTION III BLOOD 89
8. Blood and Plasma Proteins 91
Plasma and Serum 91
Composition of Blood 92
Diseases and Plasma Proteins 94
9. Haemopoiesis and Red Blood
Corpuscle (RBC) 96
Haemopoiesis 96
Erythrocytes (RBC) 99
10. Haemoglobin and Anaemia 102
Haemoglobin 102
Anaemias 107
11. White Blood Corpuscles 112
Granulocytes 112
Different White Blood Cells 112
Agranulocytes 114
12. Thrombocytes 118
Platelets 118
Haemostasis 119
Purpura 121
13. Blood Coagulation and
Bleeding Disorders 122
Mechanism of Blood Clotting 122
Deep Vein Thrombosis 124
Haemostatic Function Tests 125
Fibrinolysis 125
Acquired and Inherited Clotting
Disorders 125
Prevention of Intravascular Clotting 126
Anticoagulants In Vivo and In Vitro 126
14. Blood Groups and
Transfusion 128
Blood Groups 128
Transfusion of Blood 130
15. Lymphatic and Immune
System 133
The Lymphatic System 133
Tissue Macrophage System 134
Immunity 135
Immunoglobulins 139
Mechanism of Action of Antibodies 139
SECTION IV CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM 143
16. Structure of the Heart and
Conducting System 145
Atria and Ventricle 145
Valves in the Heart 146
Conducting System of Heart 148
Pacemaker Potential 149
Innervation of the Heart and
Peripheral Vessels 149
17. Electrocardiogram 152
Normal ECG 152
18. Cardiac Cycle 158
Cardiac Cycle 158
Heart Sounds 162
19. Cardiac Output 164
Cardiac Output 164
Regulation of Cardiac Output 165
20. General Principles
of Circulation 170
Introduction 170
Functions of Different Components
of Vessels 172
Structure of Vessels 172
Cross-sectional Area of Different
Vessels 174
Pressure Changes in Vascular System 174
Haemodynamics 175
21. Cardiovascular Regulatory
Mechanisms 178
Local Regulatory Mechanisms 178
Systemic Regulatory Mechanisms 179
Systemic Regulation by Nervous
System 180
Atrial Stretch Receptors 181
22. Arterial Blood Pressure 184
Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure 184
23. Circulation through
Special Regions 192
Coronary Circulation 192
Factors that Affect Coronary
Blood Flow 193
Cerebral Blood Flow 194
Cutaneous Circulation 194
24. Physiology of Shock 196
Types of Shocks 196
Common Symptoms of Shock 196
SECTION V RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM 199
25. Organization of Respiratory
System 201
Tracheobronchial Tree 202
Respiratory Membrane 202
Pleura 203
Non-Respiratory Functions of Lung 203
26. Mechanics of Respiration 205
Inspiration 205
Expiration 206
Pressure Changes during
Ventilation 206
Lung Volume and Capacities 207
Pulmonary Ventilation 208
Maximum Breathing Capacity
(Maximum Voluntary Ventilation,
Maximum Ventilation Volume) 208
Pulmonary Reserve 208
Alveolar Surface Tension 208
Compliance 209
Work of Breathing 209
Airway Resistance 210
Alveolar Ventilation 210
Dead Space 210
Ventilation–Perfusion Ratio 210
Diffusion Capacity 211
27. Transport of Gases 213
Partial Pressure of Gases 213
Oxygen Transport 214
Transport of Carbon Dioxide 216
28. Regulation of Respiration 218
Nervous Regulatory Mechanism 218
Chemical Controlling Mechanisms
of Respiration 2208
929. Hypoxia and Deep
Sea Diving 223
Classifi cation of Hypoxia 223
Effects of Hypoxia 224
Effects of Decreased Barometric
Pressure 224
Cyanosis 225
Decompression Sickness 225
Cardiovascular and Respiratory
Adjustments during Exercise 225
SECTION VI DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM 227
30. Organization and Functions
of Gastrointestinal System 229
Gastrointestinal System 229
31. Deglutition and Salivary
Secretion 236
Mouth 236
Teeth 236
Swallowing 238
Salivary Glands 239
32. Stomach 244
Gastric Mucosa and Glands 244
Gastric Secretion and Its Functions 245
33. Pancreas 251
Composition and Functions
of Pancreatic Juice 251
Mechanism of Formation of
Bicarbonate by Pancreas 253
Pancreatic Enzymes 253
Pancreatic Function Tests 255
34. Liver and Biliary Secretion 256
Liver 256
Biliary Secretion 258
35. Small Intestine 262
Structure 262
Intestinal Secretions 263
Movements of Small Intestine 264
36. Large Intestine 268
Secretions in Large Intestine 269
Movements of Colon 269
Functions of Large Intestine 270
Defaecation 270
37. Digestion and Absorption 272
Digestion and Absorption
of Carbohydrates 272
Digestion and Absorption
of Proteins 273
Digestion and Absorption of Fats 276
Absorption of Water 277
SECTION VII FORMATION AND
EXCRETION OF
URINE 283
38. Structure and Functions
of Kidney 285
Types of Nephron 286
Renal Blood Flow 288
Functions of Kidney 289
39. Mechanism of Urine
Formation 291
Glomerular Filtration 292
Reabsorption and Secretions
in Renal Tubules 295
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) 295
Loop of Henle 298
Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT) 299
Collecting Ducts 300
40. The Countercurrent System 302
Countercurrent System 302
Countercurrent Multiplier System 303
Maintenance of Medullary Gradient 304
41. Renal Regulation of
Acid–Base Balance 306
Regulation of Acid–Base Balance
by Renal System 307
Acid–Base Disorders 309
42. Micturition 310
Innervation of Urinary Bladder 310
Micturition Refl ex 311
43. Basal Metabolic Rate
and Body Temperature
Regulation 313
Measurement of BMR 313
Regulation of Body Temperature 314
Thermoregulation 316
SECTION VIII ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM 319
44. Endocrine Glands 321
Endocrine System 321
Endocrine Glands and Hormones 321
Relationship between Hypothalamus
and Pituitary Gland 323
Regulation of Hormonal Secretion 324
45. Pituitary Gland 327
Adenohypophysis 328
Anterior Pituitary Gland 329
Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis) 333
46. Thyroid Gland 339
Functional Unit of Thyroid Gland 339
Mechanism of Synthesis of Thyroid
Hormone 340
Transport of Thyroid Hormones 342
Actions of Thyroid Hormones 343
Regulation of Thyroid Secretions 344
Pathophysiology of Thyroid Gland 344
Thyroid Function Tests 346
47. Adrenal Gland 349
Adrenal Cortex 349
Adrenal Medulla 356
Catecholamines Receptors 357
48. Endocrine Pancreas 362
Islet Cells 362
Insulin Structure 363
Biosynthesis of Insulin 363
Circulation and Degradation of Insulin 364
Mechanism of Action of Insulin 364
Physiological Actions of Insulin 365
Control of Insulin Secretion 368
Applied Physiology 369
Glucagon 372
Somatostatin 374
Pancreatic Polypeptide 375
49. Parathyroid, Calcitonin
and Vitamin D 378
Calcium 378
Hormonal Regulation of Calcium
Metabolism 382
Pathophysiology of Parathyroid Hormone,
Vitamin D and Bone Diseases 385
Vitamin D Defi ciency 386
50. Thymus and Pineal Glands 390
Thymus 390
Pineal Gland 391
SECTION IX REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM 393
51. Sex Determination,
Differentiation and Onset
of Puberty 395
Sex Determination 396
Chromosomal Abnormalities 396
Development of Gonads 396
Puberty (Adolescence) 398
52. Male Reproductive
Physiology 400
Male Reproductive Organs 400
Structure of Testes 400
Spermatogenesis 401
Mature Sperm 402
Sertoli Cells 403
Semen 403
Erection and Ejaculation 403
Endocrine Functions of Testes 404
Pathophysiology of Testes 405
153. Female Reproductive
Physiology 407
Female Reproductive System 407
Structure of Ovary 408
Secretion of Hormones 410
Ovarian Cycle 412
Vaginal Cycle 412
Uterine or Menstrual Cycle 412
54. Pregnancy, Parturition,
Lactation and
Contraception 417
Pregnancy 417
Parturition 419
Process of Lactation 420
Contraception 421
SECTION X NERVOUS
SYSTEM 425
55. Organization of Nervous
System 427
Central Nervous System 427
Peripheral Nervous System 429
56. Synapse 434
Classifi cation of Synapses 434
Electrical Synapse 434
Chemical Synapse 435
57. Receptors 441
Sensory Receptors 441
Modalities of Cutaneous Sensations 442
Generator Potentials 443
Encoding of Sensory Information 445
58. Refl exes 447
Refl ex Action Pathway 447
Classifi cation of Refl exes 447
Monosynaptic Refl ex 448
Polysynaptic Refl ex 452
Properties of Refl exes 453
Muscle Tone 454
59. Sensory System 456
Sensory Tracts in the Spinal Cord 456
Pathway for Fine Touch, Tactile
Localization, Discrimination, Proprioceptive
and Kinaesthetic Sensation, Vibration
and Deep Pressure 457
Pathway for Pain and Temperature
Sensations 458
Pathway for Pain, Temperature,
Proprioception and Vibration from
Head Area 459
Pathway for Crude Touch and Tactile
Localization 460
Pathway for Unconscious Kinaesthetic
Sensations 460
Somatosensory Cortex 460
Types of Sensations 462
60. Motor System 466
Motor Cortex 466
Extrapyramidal System 470
Pathophysiology of Lesions in Pyramidal
and Extrapyramidal Tracts 471
61. Cerebellum, Basal Ganglia
and Reticular Formation 475
Cerebellum 475
Basal Ganglia 479
Reticular Formation 480
62. Thalamus and Hypothalamus 483
Thalamus 483
Hypothalamus 485
63. Cerebrum and Limbic
System 489
Cerebrum 489
Limbic System 493
Emotions 494
64. Vestibular Apparatus
and Control of Posture 496
Vestibular Apparatus 496
Posture 498
65. Autonomic Nervous System 501
Division of ANS 502
Innervation of Organ Systems, Receptor
Types and Responses 506
Neurotransmitters 508
66. Higher Functions of
Nervous System 510
Learning and Memory 510
Speech 512
67. Cerebrospinal Fluid and
Blood–Brain Barrier 514
Cerebrospinal Fluid 514
Blood–Brain Barrier 516
SECTION XI SPECIAL SENSES 519
68. Eye 521
The Organization of the Retina 523
Photoreceptor Cells 524
Visual Pathway 525
Lesions in Optic Tract 525
Refractive Media and their Refractive
Indices 526
Mechanisms of Generation of
Photoreceptor Potential 526
Accommodation 527
Light Refl ex 528
The Visual Field 528
Visual Acuity 528
Errors of Refraction 529
Colour Vision 529
69. Ear 533
Introduction 533
Sound 533
Frequency 534
Anatomy and Physiology of External,
Middle and Internal Ear 534
The Cochlea 538
The Organ of Corti (Receptor
of Hearing) 538
Mechanism of Hearing 539
Auditory Pathway 540
Applied Physiology 543
Audiometry 544
70. Taste and Smell 546
Taste 546
Smell 549
Appendix I Understanding Medical
Terminology 553
Appendix II Units of Measure, Weight
and Symbols 555
Appendix III Abbreviations Used
in the Book 557
Index 559
